These results point to the contingencies that can influence outcomes from BRR. Studies of dissolved oxygen (DO) and water temperature, key water quality metrics for salmonids, have demonstrated improved conditions in some cases, but warming and decreased DO have been more commonly reported in meta‐analyses. In conclusion, the proposed methodology, which could be transferred to other mountain regions, allows to optimise investment for erosion prevention and wetland conservation by using only very specific areas of the landscape for habitat management (e.g., for NBS implementation).īeaver‐related restoration (BRR) has gained popularity as a means of improving stream ecosystems, but the effects are not fully understood. The results show a network pattern for forest management that would allow for controlling erosion effects across space and time at three levels: one, by reducing the load that originates upslope in the absence of forest cover two, by intersecting runoff at watercourses related to sediment transport and three, by a lack of former barriers, by trapping erosion near to the receiving wetland systems, main river axes and contributing streams. We achieved this by identifying the most suitable locations for the conservation and restoration of natural forests on slopes and in riparian areas, which may reduce the risk of soil erosion and maximise sediment filtering, respectively. Finally, forest dynamics, wetland distribution and potential erosion were combined in a multi-criteria analysis aiming to reduce the amount of sediment reaching selected wetlands. At the same time, we obtained the potential erosion using the NetMap software to identify potential sediment production, transport and deposition areas. Overall accuracy scores reached values of 86% for LULC classification and 61% for wetland mapping. We used an S2 mosaic and topography-derived data such as the slope and topographic wetness index (TWI), which indicate terrain water accumulation. We then modelled the distribution of wetlands to identify the areas with the greatest potential for moisture accumulation. We applied this forest gain to a scenario generator model to derive a 30-year future LULC map that defines the potential forest extent for the study area in 2049. We estimated a forest cover increase rate of 2 ha/year comparing current and past LULC maps against external validation data. We fed RS-based models with detailed in situ information based on photo-interpretation and fieldwork completed from 2017 to 2021. We used time series Landsat 5TM, 7ETM+, 8OLI and Sentinel 2A/2B MSI (S2) imagery to map forest dynamics and wetland distribution in Picos de Europa National Park (Cantabrian Mountains, northern Spain). In this work, we develop a Remote Sensing (RS)-based modelling approach to identify areas for the implementation of nature-based solutions (NBS) (i.e., natural forest conservation and restoration) that allow reducing the vulnerability of aquatic ecosystems to siltation in mountainous regions. In mountainous landscapes, the regulation of services such as water quality or erosion control has been impacted by land use and land cover (LULC) changes, especially the loss and fragmentation of forest patches. Human activities have caused a significant change in the function and services that ecosystems have provided to society since historical times. NetMap provides decision support for forestry, restoration, monitoring, conservation, and regulation. To facilitate its use, NetMap contains hyperlinked users' manuals and reference materials, including a library of 50 watershed parameters. Search functions target overlaps between specific hillslope and channel conditions and between roads and landslide or debris flow potential. Approximately 25 automated tools address erosion risk, habitat indices, channel classification, habitat core areas, habitat diversity, and sediment and wood supply, among others. Watershed attributes are aggregated up to subbasin scales (∼10,000 ha), allowing comparative analyses across large watersheds and landscapes. Hillslope attributes, such as erosion potential, sediment supply, road density, forest age, and fire risk are aggregated down to the channel habitat scale (20-200 m) allowing unique overlap analyses, and they are accumulated downstream in networks revealing patterns across multiple scales. An integrated suite of numerical models and analysis tools (NetMap) is created for three purposes: (1) Develop regional scale terrain databases in support of watershed science and resource management, (2) Automate numerous kinds of watershed analyses keying on environmental variability for diversifying resource management options, and (3) Improve tools and skills for interpreting watershed-level controls on aquatic systems, including natural disturbance.
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